Andi Asdiana Irma Sari Yusuf

Department of Mineral-Chemical Engineering, Politeknik ATI Makassar, Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia 90211

Yuli Amdia Riski

Department of Mineral-Chemical Engineering, Politeknik ATI Makassar, Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia 90211

Herlina Rahim

Department of Mineral-Chemical Engineering, Politeknik ATI Makassar, Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia 90211

Ibtisamatul Aminah

Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional, Nanggewer Mekar, Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia 16915

Nur An-nisa Putry Mangarengi

Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Hasanuddin, Gowa, South Sulawesi, Indonesia 92172 

Sariwahyuni

Department of Mineral-Chemical Engineering, Politeknik ATI Makassar, Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia 90211

Idi Amin

Department of Mineral-Chemical Engineering, Politeknik ATI Makassar, Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia 90211

Syardah Ugra Al Adawiyah

Department of Mineral-Chemical Engineering, Politeknik ATI Makassar, Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia 90211

DOI: https://doi.org/10.19184/jobc.v5i2.6390 

ABSTRACT 

An excessive concentration of nickel in aquatic systems poses significant risks to the environment and living organisms, particularly when it exceeds established environmental quality standards. Conventional treatment techniques such as chemical precipitation, ion exchange, and membrane filtration are often limited by high operational costs, complex maintenance, and the generation of secondary sludge. Biomass-derived activated carbon has emerged as a sustainable and cost-effective adsorbent with notable adsorption potential. However, studies exploring hybrid biomass sources for activated carbon production remain scarce. This study investigates the feasibility of using ultrasonically activated carbon derived from a 50:50 blend of palm and candlenut shells for the adsorption of Ni²⁺ from aqueous solutions. The biomass underwent carbonization followed by ultrasonic activation at 48 kHz and was subsequently subjected to comprehensive physicochemical characterization and batch adsorption experiments. The optimized hybrid adsorbent exhibited the highest fixed carbon content (84.68%) and iodine number (374.36 mg/g). Adsorption tests revealed a Ni²⁺ removal efficiency of 77.33% within 30 minutes. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) analysis showed the presence of main functional groups (-OH, C=O, C=C) that can bind metal ions. This emphasized the ultrasonic activation potential as an eco-friendly process for producing high-quality activated carbon, contributing to water treatment and aligning with circular economy principles.

Keywords: ultrasonic activation, activated carbon, lignocellulosic biomass, nickel adsorption, wastewater treatment, palm shell

REFERENCES

[1] G. Genchi, A. Carocci, G. Lauria, M. S. Sinicropi, and A. Catalano, “Nickel: Human health and environmental toxicology,” Feb. 01, 2020, MDPI AG. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17030679.

[2] F. Fu and Q. Wang, “Removal of heavy metal ions from wastewaters: A review,” 2011, Academic Press. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.11.011.

[3] T. A. Kurniawan, G. Y. S. Chan, W. H. Lo, and S. Babel, “Physico-chemical treatment techniques for wastewater laden with heavy metals,” Chemical Engineering Journal, vol. 118, no. 1–2, pp. 83–98, May 2006, doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2006.01.015.

[4] M. A. Yahya, Z. Al-Qodah, and C. W. Z. Ngah, “Agricultural bio-waste materials as potential sustainable precursors used for activated carbon production: A review,” 2015, Elsevier Ltd. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2015.02.051.

[5] O. Ioannidou and A. Zabaniotou, “Agricultural residues as precursors for activated carbon production-A review,” Dec. 2007. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2006.03.013.

[6] E. Menya, P. W. Olupot, H. Storz, M. Lubwama, and Y. Kiros, “Production and performance of activated carbon from rice husks for removal of natural organic matter from water: A review,” Jan. 01, 2018, Institution of Chemical Engineers. doi: 10.1016/j.cherd.2017.11.008.

[7] A. Bhatnagar and M. Sillanpää, “Utilization of agro-industrial and municipal waste materials as potential adsorbents for water treatment-A review,” Mar. 01, 2010. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2010.01.007.

[8] T. W. Chew et al., “A Review of Bio-Based Activated Carbon Properties Produced from Different Activating Chemicals during Chemicals Activation Process on Biomass and Its Potential for Malaysia,” Dec. 01, 2023, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI). doi: 10.3390/ma16237365.

[9] M. M. Rahman, M. Adil, A. M. Yusof, Y. B. Kamaruzzaman, and R. H. Ansary, “Removal of heavy metal ions with acid activated carbons derived from oil palm and coconut shells,” Materials, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 3634–3650, 2014, doi: 10.3390/ma7053634.

[10] I. Lestari, L. Marlinda, Y. W. Mirzayanti, and M. Al Muttaqii, “Sunan candlenut shells activated carbon: Preparation, characterization, and application adsorption of Rhodamine B,” 2022.

[11] Y. Kim Iioey, “ADSORPTION OF COPPER( II ) AND NICKEL( II) IONS ONTO CHEMICALLY TREATED CANDLENUT SHELL,” University Sains Malaysia, 2016.

[12] L. Utarina, R. Rusdianasari, and L. Kalsum, “Characterization of palm shell-derived bio-oil through pyrolysis,” Journal of Applied Agricultural Science and Technology, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 139–148, 2022.

[13] A. S. Ello, L. K. C. De Souza, A. Trokourey, and M. Jaroniec, “Development of microporous carbons for CO2 capture by KOH activation of African palm shells,” Journal of CO2 Utilization, vol. 2, pp. 35–38, 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.jcou.2013.07.003.

[14] S. G. Herawan, M. S. Hadi, M. R. Ayob, and A. Putra, “Characterization of activated carbons from oil-palm shell by CO2 activation with no holding carbonization temperature,” The Scientific World Journal, vol. 2013, 2013, doi: 10.1155/2013/624865.

[15] G. Issabayeva, M. K. Aroua, and N. M. N. Sulaiman, “Removal of lead from aqueous solutions on palm shell activated carbon,” Bioresour Technol, vol. 97, no. 18, pp. 2350–2355, Dec. 2006, doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2005.10.023.

[16] D. Ayu Afifah and A. Agung Ramandani, “Characteristics Candlenut shell-based activated carbon for reduction Iron (Fe) in surface water from Bratasena Tulang Bawang, Lampung,” Journal of Natural Sciences and Mathematics Research J. Nat. Scien. & Math. Res, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 35–45, 2024, [Online]. Available: http://journal.walisongo.ac.id/index.php/jnsmr

[17] J. R. García, U. Sedran, M. A. A. Zaini, and Z. A. Zakaria, “Preparation, characterization, and dye removal study of activated carbon prepared from palm kernel shell,” Environmental Science and Pollution Research, vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 5076–5085, 2018.

[18] U. I. Gaya, E. Otene, and A. H. Abdullah, “Adsorption of aqueous Cd (II) and Pb (II) on activated carbon nanopores prepared by chemical activation of doum palm shell,” Springerplus, vol. 4, no. 1, p. 458, 2015.

[19] F. Hussin, M. K. Aroua, and R. Yusoff, “Adsorption of CO2 on palm shell based activated carbon modified by deep eutectic solvent: Breakthrough adsorption study,” J Environ Chem Eng, vol. 9, no. 4, p. 105333, 2021.

[20] S. Muliani, M. Zakir, and S. Fauziah, “Surface Modification of Activated Carbon from Candlenut Shell (Aleurites moluccana) with HNO3 and its Application as an Adsorbent Methyl Orange Dyes,” Egypt J Chem, vol. 66, no. 9, pp. 27–36, 2023.

[21] R. Simanjuntak, P. Taba, R. Ibrahim, and E. B. Demmallino, “Effectiveness of Modified Candlenut Shell (Alleurites mollucana) in Adsorption of Fe (III) Heavy Metals to Improve Groundwater Quality,” Adv Environ Biol, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 36–41, 2020.

[22] T. Q. Romadiansyaha et al., “Functionalized graphite into hydrophilic activated carbon: Synthesis, characterization, and adsorption studies,” Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 11, pp. 1–13, 2024.

[23] F. T. Ademiluyi and E. O. David-West, “Effect of Chemical Activation on the Adsorption of Heavy Metals Using Activated Carbons from Waste Materials,” ISRN Chemical Engineering, vol. 2012, pp. 1–5, Dec. 2012, doi: 10.5402/2012/674209.

[24] J. Vievard et al., “Bio-Based Adsorption as Ecofriendly Method for Wastewater Decontamination: A Review,” May 01, 2023, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI). doi: 10.3390/toxics11050404.

[25] N. S. Topare and V. S. Wadgaonkar, “A review on application of low-cost adsorbents for heavy metals removal from wastewater,” in Materials Today: Proceedings, Elsevier Ltd, Jan. 2023, pp. 8–18. doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2022.08.450.

[26] P. J. Wibawa, M. Nur, M. Asy’ari, and H. Nur, “SEM, XRD and FTIR analyses of both ultrasonic and heat generated activated carbon black microstructures,” Heliyon, vol. 6, no. 3, Mar. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03546.

[27] D. Khater, M. Alkhabbas, and A. M. Al-Ma’abreh, “Adsorption of Pb, Cu, and Ni Ions on Activated Carbon Prepared from Oak Cupules: Kinetics and Thermodynamics Studies,” Molecules, vol. 29, no. 11, Jun. 2024, doi: 10.3390/molecules29112489.

[28] R. Ali, Z. Aslam, R. A. Shawabkeh, A. Asghar, and I. A. Hussein, “BET, FTIR, and RAMAN characterizations of activated carbon from waste oil fly ash,” Turk J Chem, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 279–295, 2020, doi: 10.3906/KIM-1909-20.

[29] E. R. Tarigan, E. Frida, S. Humaidi, and Susilawati, “Adsorption Mechanism of Heavy Metals Using Activated Carbon Derived from Hydrilla Verticillata,” Trends in Sciences, vol. 22, no. 1, 2025, doi: 10.48048/tis.2025.8732.

[30] A. L. Paredes-Doig, A. Pinedo-Flores, J. Aylas-Orejón, D. Obregón-Valencia, and M. R. Sun Kou, “The interaction of metallic ions onto activated carbon surface using computational chemistry software,” Adsorption Science and Technology, vol. 38, no. 5–6, pp. 191–204, Jul. 2020, doi: 10.1177/0263617420919234.